The 17th and 18th centuries saw the military triumph of the English over the Irish Catholics, marked primarily by Cromwell's Irish campaign (164950) and, under William (III) of Orange, the Battle of the Boyne (1690). The native Irish people were brutally suppressed; their lands were confiscated and given to Protestants, and they were subjected to a penal code that deprived them of civil liberties.
The Union Jack marks Australia's historical links with Britain. The Southern Cross helped guide early European navigators to the continent. Effective date: 15 April 1954.