Men and violence: do you have a problem with that?
Violence is a common feature of most societies. Statistically, we know that it's predominantly a male characteristic, particularly one of young males. In England and Wales more than 90 per cent of violent offenders are male, and half of those are aged between 17 and 24. So why are men prone to acts of violence?
Natural-born fighters
The instinct hypothesis suggests that aggression is a natural instinct that has the biological function of ensuring the proper spacing of animals, thereby helping to maintain the stability of the group.
Conrad Lorenz, the man behind this theory, observed that members of the same species were aggressive towards each other when they were subject to specific threats.
He believed that men's violent instincts are normally expressed in a socially approved way in the modern world, for example through sport. It is the failure to find such expression that leads to undesirable aggressive acts.
Driven mad
Another view is the frustrated-drive theory, which suggests aggression stems from the frustration of not getting your own way.
It holds that aggression is the end result when a person is prevented from achieving a goal. The degree of aggression depends on:
Frustration may not lead to aggression if other inhibiting forces are present, such as a fear of consequences, eg a criminal record.
The aggression may also be displaced onto objects other than the frustrating agent. An example would be kicking a cat when you're angry with the cat's owner.
This view may explain some aspects of aggression but it cannot account for the whole picture because frustration leads to different responses in different people.
This theory also fails to explain some types of violence, including sadistic acts or those carried out in defence of a reputation.
Chemical reaction
If violent acts are not simply the result of frustration at external events, could hormones be to blame?
There has been much controversy as to the role of male hormones in aggression.
Some argue that testosterone predisposes men to aggression. This has been borne out in part by studies that show men who abuse steroids while bodybuilding are more aggressive and explosive than those who do not.
It is beyond argument that men have more testosterone in their circulation than females and that men are more aggressive.
But it's clear that testosterone does not in itself lead to violence. The evidence from studies on bodybuilders cannot be taken entirely at face value.
While it's likely that increased levels of testosterone aggravate a tendency towards violence in some men, it does not follow that all men are naturally violent.
Aggravating the aggression
Personality
Both these personality types are more prone to violence than the norm.
Immediate social group
Here, the aggression may merely take the form of posturing or may turn to actual violence.
In such instances a man's behaviour may owe more to the effect of group pressure than to his own personality.
Behaviour of the victim
In 25 per cent of homicides, the victim appears to play a substantial part in triggering the violence by provoking the aggressor.
In one study, half of spouse murder victims were found to be alcoholic or psychotic and had played a significant part in their own death.
Controversial studies of battered wives have also revealed a sub-group who were repeatedly provocative to their explosive husbands.
Alcohol
There is a clear link between the abuse of alcohol and aggressive behaviour.
Alcohol reduces our inhibitions. In some cases this overrides the self-control that might normally prevent someone from acting aggressively.
Drugs
Personal surroundings
It is unclear how much (if at all) violent films affect individual attitudes towards violence.
Physiological changes
Medical conditions can sometimes play a role. For example, a person with diabetes may develop low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia) if they miss a meal and become aggressive as a result.
People who've sustained a head injury, say in a road accident, can be irritable and aggressive even if the injury was relatively mild. That said, it is people who are more irritable and aggressive in the first place who are more likely to receive a head injury in a traffic collision or through an assault.
Very rarely, a serious condition such as a brain tumour may be the reason for aggression.
Mental abnormality
It is not the cause of most violent incidents, and is not an issue for the vast majority of men who are prone to violence.
A more common example would be a man with depression who cannot or will not admit this to himself, and who responds to his difficulties by being irritable or violent towards his family.
In these situations, a family will often describe a clear change in the aggressor's personality. Treatment should lead to a resolution of the problem.
Social circumstances
Many offenders are either unemployed or employed in low-status, low-income jobs. Many come from areas of poverty and deprivation.
Additionally, studies on young violent men demonstrate a number of common background features.
A child who suffers repeated trauma might grow up to be an adult who is impulsively angry and aggressive. In these circumstances, it may be the body produces stress hormones at an excessive rate, and so the individual is constantly in a state of 'hair-trigger' alert.
There is evidence that all crime, including violent crime, decreases in times of economic prosperity and increases in times of recession.
There is also evidence that violent crime becomes less common when society is more cohesive and nurturing.
It is probable that the intensely competitive nature of Western societies leads to increased aggression and violence, especially among those who do not prosper.
What can be done about male aggression?
Offender or victim?
It is no longer appropriate for us to explain violent behaviour as purely a result of some kind of intrinsic evil - that an aggressive person is merely a 'bad seed'.
Violent behaviour may be seen as a combination of physical, psychological and particularly social factors. Perhaps we should bear in mind that aggressive people are likely to have been the victims of violence themselves.
Some individuals over-control their emotions while others under-control them.
The influence of the immediate social group can be seen in the case of football hooligans, angry crowds or young men out at night drinking.
Victims of violence are often well known to the aggressor.
Fifty per cent of violent incidents happen in or near pubs, while alcohol is often involved in acts of violence at home.
The link between drugs and aggression seems to be connected with the need to get the drugs, or money for the drugs, which can lead to violent crime.
A disturbance in the body's chemistry or physiology can alter a person's self-control - perhaps brought on by fatigue, hunger or lack of sleep.
Violence is sometimes associated with various forms of mental illness and mental handicap.
Much of the violence in present-day society is associated with social deprivation.
For the individual who is prone to temper tantrums, irritability or aggression, there are a number of factors that can be addressed.
The issue of male violence in society is an extremely complex one.
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